Richard Hayton

A New Millennium A New Chariot - Newbridge, Scotland
On the 25th of January, 2001, the first signs of what was to be a discovery to shake the foundations out of the proposition that chariot-burials were the sole preserve of the Arras culture - the Parisi, and that they were all to be found in Yorkshire, was being excavated, in Scotland. This site was discovered during routine archaeological excavations in advance of a Muir Construction development for the Hanover Property Unit Trust. The initial investigations were made by, the City of Edinburgh Council's, City Archaeologist because of the proximity of Huly Hill, a Bronze Age burial cairn just in case there were more Bronze Age features to be discovered. However, it was not Bronze Age, but Iron Age, which became apparent. The site was at the Edinburgh Interchange, Newbridge, about 10k from Scotland's capital city. This chariot-burial has become known as simply the Newbridge chariot.

It would be perhaps, beholden of me to include the story of this discovery, but the brief I have set myself is to include only those chariot-burials within the county of Yorkshire. This does not mean however that the story of the Newbridge chariot excavation will not be told. My colleague, who originally hails from Scotland, and who includes on her own web site, many aspects of Scottish history has agreed to take up the challenge in order to complete the tally of British chariot-burials. There will therefore be a complete history of the discovery of all these vehicles, regardless of geography. While this arrangement might prove frustrating to some, it will I hope make sense to most. It would be easy enough to cover Newbridge herein; it just seems to me that its direct inclusion is out of place in a Yorkshire web site. It's all a matter of having to draw lines, for if Newbridge is included, then why not ALL those sites on mainland Europe as well - and that, as they say - is a whole new ball-game! Click here for Newbridge Chariot

The advent of such cult television programmes as the UK's Channel 4's 'Time Team' and BBC2's 'Meet the Ancestors' to name but two, has brought modern archaeology into the homes of more people than ever before. This endows such programmes with certain responsibilities; to explain archaeological methods; to describe their discoveries; and to provide enough background information to explain the relevance and importance of such discoveries to their viewers' heritage. It also allows many more people to enjoy the discovery of their past, such programmes enable people to see, perhaps for the first time, how such artefacts are unearthed, conserved, and later displayed. Most importantly perhaps, they encourage younger people to become involved in some way in either archaeology or history, a goal, which has to be achieved if there is to be a next generation of enthusiasts, be they amateur, professional, or academic.

Wetwang - again!

"Another chariot
Following the Iron Age chariot burial found this year near Edinburgh (see BA April), another has come to light at Wetwang in East Yorkshire. The new grave contained the well-preserved skeleton of a young woman, aged about 25-35, lying amid the remains of her dismantled chariot and a number of sacrificed pigs. Dating to the 3rd or 4th century BC, it may be the earliest chariot burial in Britain and is the fourteenth from the area. It possibly belonged to a queen of the Parisi tribe."

[http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba59/news.shtml]

In the year 2001, whilst excavating a medieval manorial site on the eastern edge of the village of Wetwang, which was in the process of becoming a housing development, Adrian Havercroft and his team from Guildhouse Consultancy found, in the last days of their excavations [was it ever thus!], yet another chariot-burial. This burial has subsequently become world famous. Discovered in mid-March 2001, it was revealed to be a central trapezoidal shaped grave pit 3.3m in length N-S; 2.5m E-W at its south end and 1.7m E-W at the north end; its N-S axis lay slightly west of north. Tony Pacitto then checked the pit with a gradiometer, whereupon strong magnetic readings were confirmed. "Rapid discussions took place with Dave Evans (for the LPA) and Keith Miller (English Heritage), when preservation in situ was considered and ruled out. In view of the developer's previous excellent response to PPG 16 [designated title for the entire excavation site at Wetwang in 2001] requirements on the site (i.e. geophysical and earthwork surveys, trial trenching, area clearance and agreed final mitigation works) coupled with the small nature of the development, it was agreed that English Heritage would fund the works. At the same time the Guildhouse Consultancy negotiated with the British Museum (Dr. J. D. Hill) for conservation works in return for the donation by the builder of any finds. Ian Stead was commissioned as the Specialist Advisor, with Ian Panter (English Heritage) giving environmental advice, Durham University Laboratory advising on faunal remains, Sheelagh Stead on human remains and Tony Pacitto providing geophysical and metal detecting expertise."

[ERAS News No. 51, July 2002, pp 6-8]

Dave Evans has told me that his involvement was purely one of supporting the decision to fund the excavation of the grave, and that such support was arguably considered vital to the decision to begin digging it. Such are the financial constraints these days, it seems to me, that such decisions have to be considered in 'committee' as to their worth, archaeologically, socially and educationally. Thankfully the correct decision was reached in this case.

On the 7th April 2001, it was announced in the press that, Hogg the Builder, a housing developer from York, was working a site for a new housing estate on the eastern side of the village of Wetwang, near Driffield, East Yorkshire. The site was near the same Wetwang Slack site excavated by John Dent some years previously, but rather than in the dry valley of the Slack, this site was on a low ridge overlooking it. Hogg the builder had decided, "on a final check after we had found a ditch surrounding a barrow. One of our trenches and had missed the grave pit by a whisker."

[Adrian Havercroft speaking to the Guardian newspaper, 7th April 2001]

An invitation to Adrian Havercroft has been issued for him to make any comment he might have deemed apposite, but there has been no response, which I can only put down to him being an extremely busy man, especially at this time of year - early summer 2005.

Just how close to being missed is evident because it was only due to a Tree Preservation Order [TPO], which necessitated the slight re-routing of the approach road to the site and the subsequent need to strip it of soil, that the outline of a square barrow became apparent.
"This new discovery, while very exciting, caused problems. Should attempts be made to preserve the remains of the barrow? Could it somehow be incorporated undisturbed into the housing development, or should it be excavated, and if so, how? The funds provided by the developer for the excavation of the site as it was originally defined would not cover the excavation of this unpredicted and potentially very expensive addition, so who would pay for it and then deal with the fragile artefacts that it could well contain? As this was clearly a site of major importance, expert advice was sought from both English Heritage and the British Museum.
"It was decided that as the site was so important a full scientific excavation should be carried out. English Heritage would provide the additional funds required and the British Museum a team to help record the excavation, lift the artefacts and then carry out their eventual conservation back in their London laboratories. Given the potential for the grave to contain a wide range of fragile and complicated artefacts, this was a very generous offer."

[http://db.bbc.co.uk/history/lj/archaeologylj/wetwang_03.shtml]

Mr. Golly Thorn, who was then the site manager at Wetwang for Hogg the Builder of York, has told me that upon the grave being first discovered, and before the teams from English Heritage and the British Museum could arrive, precautions were taken to prevent the grave from being attacked by so called 'night-hawks'. Precisely what precautions I feel it unwise to speak of in detail, but for that first night, there was some trepidation that the grave might be spoilt beyond archaeological use. However, the precautions did work, and from thence to the end of the dig - some two weeks in total - there was a 24-hour guard on site, during the rain, hail and snow that prevailed during that period, requiring that the entire gave be shrouded in a large tent to save it from the ravages of a Yorkshire winter. Mr. Thorn has also been kind enough to share with me some personal photographs he took of the site. These are all copyrighted to Mr. Thorn, and I take this opportunity to thank him for his assistance and consideration for allowing me to include them herein.

Image 1 shows the grave as soon as the topsoil had been removed, clearly delineating the burial. Image 2 shows the large digger bucket sitting on top of the grave to prevent theft, prior to the teams from English Heritage and the British Museum arriving on site.

This image provides an excellent idea of just how close this burial was to being missed - not the closeness of the new road

In this first image, the wheels of the chariot are being exposed, while in the second image, the skeleton of the 'queen' is being excavated.

NOTICE
Here, I think I have to point out to any reader that while what follows is meant with the best of motives, the excavations at Main Street, Wetwang are currently unpublished, and a full Assessment Report has yet to be produced by the excavation team. Hence, until such an assessment has been completed, any statements about the interpretation of the vehicle burial are going to be interim and may well be amended or refuted in the future, when the site is finally published. I have received this caution from a number of very reliable sources, and hereby pass it on to the reader in all good faith, in the hope that no offence is caused, for none is intended. It is my personal remit to provide any reader with an accurate narrative, and in order to do this, such caution needs to be made known. However it is viewed, this statement is the current state of affairs regarding this chariot-burial, and needs to be told in order to prevent any misinterpretation of the data, should any included data be used for other purposes.

Excavation commenced on the 21st March and completed on the 2nd May [ERAS News 51], mainly in appalling weather conditions including high winds, rain and snow, which necessitated the burial site being covered in a plastic tent. Quoting Dr. J. D. Hill, writing for Current Archaeology No. 178: "The burial was that of a mature lady buried on her left side. Usually the body would be placed in the grave with the head at the north. At Wetwang this pattern was reversed. The lady was laid in a small hollow in the southern end of the grave, probably on a mat, hide or sheet. Over the upper part of her body were placed joints of pig, including several split skulls. There was a single strap-union under her knees and an iron mirror lay over her legs. The dismantled carriage or chariot was then placed over the grave. The axle with the pole attached was placed over her, followed by the main body of the vehicle. The wheels were laid in the northern half of the grave. The yoke was buried with all the rein rings attached, and the horse-bits and other parts of the harness probably wrapped around it. However, it is clear that the yoke was not attached to the pole. Part of the yoke and most of the axle of the vehicle survived as voids left when the wood had rotted away. For the first time it is possible to show what the axle of an Iron Age carriage/chariot looked like. It was not a simple and straight sided but was tapered and had swellings behind the wheels to act as wheel stops. Around the grave was a square ditch, marking the edge of a low barrow mound."

[Dr. J. D. Hill, writing for Current Archaeology No. 178 Vol. XV No 10 Published March 2002 pp 410-412]

Dr. Hill continues: "The terrets, rein rings and the three strap unions are all decorated with what appear to be coral studs. This identification still awaits confirmation. Where these studs had come loose, in the grave, underlying plugs of black gum or 'blue tack' substance were revealed**. In one case, a 'coral' stud hade been replaced by a red glass 'enamel' stud, some time before the burial. This suggests the lady's vehicle was not made especially for burial, but was old and used."

[Ibid]

**Since the above was penned, research has continued to be carried out on aspects of the burial, including the 'black gum or 'blue tack' substance. Recently published results have revealed that after analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS), revealed were the presence of triterpenoid compounds (betulin, lupeol, lupanone and others) which are characteristic of birch-bark tar, as well as a few diterpenoid compounds indicative of a softwood resin or tar. The report continues to say "While there is archaeological and documentary evidence for sophisticated and large scale production of birch-bark tar in the medieval period (Kurzweil & Todtenhaupt 1991), little is known of its preparation in prehistory. Methods involving heating the tar in pottery vessels have been tested (Kurzweil & Todtenhaupt 1990), but evidence for the use of birch-bark tar pre-dates the introduction of pottery by several millennia, and experiments in tar preparation without pottery vessels have not been entirely successful (Czarnowski & Neubauer 1990).
Sometimes the tar is mixed with other materials, for example animal fat (Dudd & Evershed 1999) and other plant tars (Regert et al. 1998).

The Wetwang tar seems to have been mixed with resin or tar from a conifer, possibly pine, a mixture that, to our knowledge, has not been reported before. Unfortunately, not enough chemical indicators survive in the mixture to ascertain whether the pine material was a resin or tar (pitch). If the latter, separate tars could have been mixed to produce the adhesive, or the plant materials could have been combined prior to manufacture"

[Rebecca Stacey, Department of Conservation, Documentation and Science, British Museum, reported in "Past", The Newsletter of the Prehistoric Society, University College, London, Number 47, July, 2004]

I have not as yet made much mention that the body in the grave at Wetwang was that of a woman. This, as has been described previously was not unique of its self, but what was special was the richness of the woman's grave, the decoration in red coral of so many items, and her mirror. This was found lying over her lower leg bones; it was made of iron, and upon being safely lifted from the grave, removed to the laboratory for final excavation and conserving. During this process it was discovered that there was also a mass of tiny blue glass beads, only a few millimetres in diameter, together with metal, and possibly coral beads and spacers located next to the handle of the mirror. The question was asked in Current Archaeology 178, 2002, whether or not this was a tassel attached to the mirror handle. I am not aware whether this has since been answered, but it seems that this is one very distinct possibility.

Continuing from CA 178, it says that there has been very little serious research on gender and Iron Age societies, but this burial naturally raises major questions about the role and status of woman in the Iron Age. That this particular woman was of some form of high status cannot be denied. That other women held high office in Iron Age tribal situations, Cartimandua [1st century AD] of the Brigantes for one, and the ubiquitous Boudicca of the Iceni for another [also 1st century AD], cannot either be denied. Both were 'queens' of their respective peoples. And maybe, just maybe, the Parisi of East Yorkshire too had, for a time anyway, a queen to rule over them. It has been predominantly a male interpretation of women's roles through history and before. This has tended to bolster the idea that women were, and always have been, subservient in some way to their male contemporaries. This, by way of the Wetwang 'Chariot Queen', is now being seriously challenged, and not before time. This woman, buried some 300 to 400 years before either of the other two named were even born [J. D. Hill, Wetwang Chariot Burial CA 178], suggests a society that lasted many centuries, a society which assumed little or no discrimination between the sexes, nor was there any discrimination against those with facial disfigurement, indeed, quite the opposite might be the case. The date of this burial was said by Humber Archaeology Partnership, Newsletter Issue 4, August 2001: "The burial was of an Iron Age woman, who was probably buried in around 300 BC."

So good was the preserved evidence of the vehicle, that the UK's BBC2 television programme, Meet the Ancestors, presented by Julian Richards FSA decided to fund the building of a replica. This was no small undertaking, craftsmen of many skills were needed to reproduce each and every item in exact detail, and where such detail was lacking, to use their own skill and initiative to fill in any gaps. A specialist wood turner was called upon to produce on an 'original' Iron Age lathe, twelve spokes for each wheel, a total of 24 per chariot based on those found at Glastonbury Lake village; specialist harness makers were called upon to reproduce all the strap-work and yoke, based upon finds at Lake Neuchatel, Switzerland; Robert Hurford a wheelwright and carriage builder from Somerset brought his skills to bear on the iron tyres based upon one found at Holme Pierrepoint, which would bind all the felloes and spokes together, plus much of the coachwork**; an expert in ancient paint manufacture was consulted about what pigments would be available in the Iron Age to decorate the completed vehicle, natural ochre's from Clearwell Caves, in the Forest of Dean were selected; an expert in knot tying was called in to bind all necessary joints with rawhide; and finally, but by no means least, Mike Loades, the ancient combat skills expert was drafted in to oversee the construction, would field trial the completed chariot. What is more, the entire process was filmed and eventually broadcast on BBC2 in 2002 as part of the Meet the Ancestors series, in an episode titled The Chariot Queen. This was to be the ultimate reconstruction! Not only was the chariot to be replicated, but a facial reconstruction of the buried woman was undertaken, which revealed she had, in life a facial disfigurement that might have been considered a mark of the Gods!

Mike Loades, wrote of the construction of the chariot that "In vehicles such as this, suspension is all important - anyone who has sat in a horse-drawn carriage knows that you get jolted around a fair deal, even on relatively smooth ground, and a seated passenger is dependent on this suspension if he is not be thrown to the ground. Chariots in other cultures are for standing on, not sitting on, as the riders can counteract a jolting ride by using their legs as springs. So here was a nettle that had to be grasped. What was it about European chariots that not only necessitated the driver to sit down but enabled them to do so?….."
** Robert Hurford has since been commissioned to build a second chariot for the BBC, this time for "What the Ancients did for us - the Britons" first broadcast on the 13th April 2005, in which this time, Mr. Hurford decided to recreate the ash felloes from a single piece of timber, each about 3m long. This was achieved by steaming the timber to a temperature of 100 degrees Centigrade for a period of two hours. After this the timber was bent round an iron former, and upon cooling the timber retained its new, circular shape. The two ends were joined after all the outer spoke ends had been inserted into the felloe. Although not mentioned, it seems likely that this method of wheel construction was inspired by the report by Ian Stead of the two wheels at Garton Station [see section 2]: "This suggests that the felloe of wheel 2 was constructed from a single length of wood (see below). The felloe of wheel 1 may well have been similar .......
"The felloes of La Tene and Roman wheels were made in two different ways. Some were constructed from a single piece of wood bent into a hoop and joined with either a butt joint or a scarf joint. Others had a felloe in segments (usually six) dowelled together, with two spokes in each segment."

[Iron Age Cemeteries in East Yorkshire, I.M. Stead, English Heritage Archaeological Report no. 22, 1991, pp 41-2]

Continuing with Mike Loades' narrative "The grave find at Wetwang, as elsewhere, held no clues for this but there was something on Roman coins and the Padua stele. All these depictions showed the vehicles to have two bowed arches on each side and a Y configuration in the centre of these. We decided to build our reconstruction with these arched sides and to make the Y's into rawhide straps. The three-sided box platform could then be suspended from the Y straps like a hammock. The hope was that this would give adequate suspension." [See Section 1 for illustration]

[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/lj/archaeologylj/chariot_01.shtml]

After extensive field trials with the completed vehicle pulled by two specially trained horses (ponies), the entire system was found to work perfectly. As has been mentioned in Section 1, this vehicle could be transposed in an instant from a mode of transport to a battle platform. In concluding, Mike Loads said "We may or may not be right in our presumption that the Wetwang vehicle had a suspension system based on the arch and Y-strap model. This was our interpretation of the pictorial evidence from coins and there was no actual evidence from the grave to support it. What is certain, though, is that if it was not this then there must have been some sort of suspension for the vehicle to have any practical value. A principal benefit of these trials was in establishing this as an essential element and thereby alerting archaeologists in future excavations to look out for relevant clues. Similarly our interpretation of how the five-terret system was deployed is only informed guesswork. But it is a conjecture that has been proved to work and will therefore be a useful source of reference for any future discoveries."

[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/lj/archaeologylj/chariot_01.shtml]

Previously mentioned "British Archaeological Awards" were announced on the 7th November 2002, which since their foundation in 1976, have grown till they now encompass 12 awards covering every aspect of British archaeology. The citation for the Chariot Queen reads: "The Iron Age chariot burial at Wetwang, Yorkshire, is the starting point for The Chariot Queen in the BBC Meet the Ancestors series. There were many of the familiar ingredients of the Meet the Ancestors series - excavation followed by facial reconstruction of the buried person, in this case a remarkable, if distorted, face. 'Added Value', however, came from the involvement of a British Museum team who were able to provide the data which made a reconstruction of the chariot possible and from the team of experts assembled for that task. The result was a full size replica chariot produced using ancient techniques. In the process a new look was taken at the evidence for the suspension system of ancient chariots, a vital aspect, if one wishes to move around successfully on rough ground. The silhouette of Julian Richards standing crouched in a charging chariot was so exactly like that of Roman charioteers seen in pictures on Roman pottery and glass that one just knew that it was right. This piece of experimental archaeology alone made the film stand out and contributed to its being give the Channel Four Award for the best Broadcast Archaeological Film in the period 2001-2."

[http://www.britarch.ac.uk/awards/baa2002.html]

It was noted by J. D. Hill, that the skeleton of the woman was upside-down, this is plain when viewing the plan. In all the other chariot graves except one, that at Garton Station, the wheels are in the southern section of the grave; and the skeleton is facing east. In this one, the wheels are at the north end, and the skeleton is facing west. Maybe there was no significance in the ritual at the time of this burial; maybe the ritual was not a formula set hard and fast in funerary rites. All the plans of all those burials included herein should be viewed, if possible together, by which method comparisons can be more easily made, and the differences between them then become apparent. Of those burials where there are plans, only that at Wetwang Slack, 1971, has the skeleton facing west. Some have the skeleton over the wheels; others have the skeleton at the far end of the grave away from the wheels. None of this has as far I know, been investigated to any degree, indeed, I have not even found these discrepancies even mentioned in any of the published reports. One would have thought that some formula, some continuity would have prevailed in an age when everything was handed down by word of mouth. People do not forget how such rites are performed, if they did, then what would be the point of them, so, why are all these burials in one hand so alike, but in the other, so diverse? Not only are the East Yorkshire burials so diverse, but those outside the Riding, outside the territory of the Arras or Parisi were buried in a ritual yet more divorced from those within it. They were buried with their chariots intact. There are obvious similarities between the two, just as the differences are as equally apparent. These intact burials, one might assume are of the Brigantes rather than the Arras, unless ancient geographers have missed out entire tribes of people. This is of course quite possible. These are but a few unresolved questions to emerge concerning these burials, there are without doubt far more questions still to be asked. That these burials have many features in common with some on mainland Europe too, has also to be kept in mind, such things are seldom coincidence.
From this it can I think be seen that the story of the Iron Age chariot-burials of East Yorkshire has not yet been told at all!

In order to finalise this narrative of the Wetwang 2001 burial it is necessary to emphasise that to date - June 2005 - there has been little by way of official publication by any of the archaeologists, therefore, it would be unwise to consider this to be anything else other than a temporary solution, until such time as official reports are published - when ever that may be.

Ferrybridge West Yorkshire
The usual format of reportage cannot yet be employed for this burial. Research is still ongoing into an assortment of aspects concerning the burial and its and their implications. All I can offer the reader here therefore is what has so far been made public. This however is by no means disappointing; on the contrary, this burial has revealed secrets that take it beyond a simple gravesite. It is hoped that in the not too far distant future, the full archaeological report for this site can be reported here, enough anyway to comply with the established format herein.

The first remarkable feature of this chariot burial is its location, not on the Wolds of the East Riding, but in the relative low-lying lands near the early crossing places for the River Ouse, a few miles east of Castleford, at Ferrybridge, in what is now West Yorkshire. According to the press release issued by the Highways Agency YH/353/03, 03 December 2003 "A rare and significant Iron Age chariot burial site has been found in West Yorkshire during excavations for the route of the new A1 motorway, one of Britain's biggest road improvement schemes."

Yet again, as with so many of the others of these burials, it was found by mere chance, when excavations were being carried out for the A1 Motorway. When top soil was removed by the road making machines, there became quite obvious a square enclosure ditch, in the centre of which was a burial pit. The pit, according to Oxford Archaeology, who were responsible for excavating the burial, would have had a low mound over it, sufficient it seems to have been visible, and remained visible for several centuries. The grave contained the skeleton of a male, about 30 to 40 years of age, and who had stood 5 feet 9 inches tall, and who had been in remarkably good health prior to his death. The burial is thought to have been quite early in the tradition, dating to perhaps 400 BC. It has been stated previously that there were in fact two distinct rituals of burial, which included chariots. The Arras, or Wolds burials, in which the chariots were dismantled in some way with their wheels flat on the grave floor; and the other, where the chariot for the most part remained intact with their wheels in the normal upright alignment. Ferrybridge was one of the latter.

An article printed in British Archaeology magazine, issue 76, May 2004, contains an excellent account of the excavation, in which it says "A single Iron Age chariot burial was found at Newbridge, near Edinburgh, in 2001. The other 19 previously known British graves of this type were all in East Yorkshire, mainly near Wetwang, where they are associated with the 'Arras Culture'. Again apart from the Newbridge chariot, British vehicles were all dismantled; intact chariots are more typical of those found on the continent. We were proposing a complete chariot in West Yorkshire. We soon knew we were right. In other ways, however, we were as surprised by anyone by what we uncovered.
"We completely excavated the ditch and the oval-like pit, which was 4.5 m by 4 m across and at most 86 cm deep. It had steep sides, and a flat base which sloped down at its southern end to accommodate the chariot's wheels. In contrast, purpose-built slots had been dug for the wheels of the Newbridge chariot, presumably to lessen the labour of excavation.
"An alcove had been dug at the northern end to take the full length of the yoke. The disposition of the fill suggested the topsoil had first been thrown out to the west and south, and the deeper limestone rubble to the west, with other spoil heaped on the eastern and south-eastern sides. This might indicate that the chariot was lowered or wheeled backwards into the pit from the north.
"This pit would originally have been covered by a low mound derived from the surrounding ditch, which enclosed an area 8 m by 7.75 m. As this had been dug into white limestone, the mound would have been clearly visible from a distance. The ditch itself was relatively insignificant, little more than a metre wide and less than half a metre deep.
"The chariot's two iron tyres, around 82 cm in diameter, survived in good condition. Both appeared slightly misshapen in the ground, but when we lifted them they reassumed their original shape to a degree. The western wheel was far better preserved than the eastern, and it was possible to trace the outline of 12 wooden spokes which had survived as wood stains. J-shaped iron linchpins and associated rings were located at either end of the axle. The two copper alloy nave hoops on the western wheel were different to those on the eastern wheel. This could, as the press reported, mean a wheel had been replaced, but it is as likely to have been only the nave hoops that were changed.
"We found several other well preserved bronze objects, many likely to be items of horse harness. The deceased had been placed in the wooden box of the vehicle, which again survived as a soil stain. The chariot platform was positioned slightly foreword of the axle; this may mean it had been separated from the rest of the chariot. Perhaps the body was brought to the grave laid out on the platform, and placed on the chariot structure as a separate event as part of the ceremony. The skeleton indicates an adult male aged between 30 and 40, about 1.75 m tall (5 ft 9 ins), with mild spinal degeneration."
"The ditch was then partially filled with soil and rubble, perhaps from the mound itself, before an extraordinary event took place. A huge quantity of cattle bone was placed in the ditch top, representing at least 250 animals: an assemblage unique for the Iron Age in Yorkshire, and perhaps for the country as a whole. The only comparisons we know are two Early Bronze Age barrows in Northamptonshire, at Irthlingborough (BA November 2002), and Gayhurst. At both sites, 1,500 years before the Ferrybridge ceremony, men were buried with dense masses of bone: from at least 185 cattle at Irthlingborough, and an estimated 600 at Gayhurst.
"At Irthlingborough it seems the cattle bones may already have been old when buried. By contrast, we believe the Ferrybridge bones are the remains of a huge feast which took place close to the monument not long after the funeral. The bone is almost exclusively cattle, and all of it seems to have been deliberately deposited as a single event, perhaps over a few days: the heap had a consistent density and we found no finer silt lenses within it. Study to date suggests that the cattle were predominantly 2-3 years old, a prime age to be slaughtered for meat. Today you would expect to get £400 for a fully grown beef animal weighing 350- 400 kg. A single fragment each of sheep and horse bone, and small quantities of pig bone have also been identified.
"One of the most interesting aspects of this chariot is its similarity to burials on the continent. In north-eastern France, for example, the normal practice when interring a body with a two-wheeled vehicle was to place a fully assembled chariot in the grave, with the body lying on top - like ours. In Britain, on the other hand, the normal rite (as much as one could say there was a normal rite) had the chariot disassembled, with the wheels either laid flat or up against the side of the pit.
"Most British chariot burials consisted of a single individual placed on their side in a 'crouched' or 'foetal' position, their arms and legs drawn in close to their bodies. On the continent, however, bodies tended to be laid out on their backs, with arms either straight to the side or upon the pelvis, and legs fully extended. Our man was neither extended nor crouched: he lay on his back, his arms straight by his sides, and his legs drawn up or 'flexed.' This 'hybrid' approach is very curious, and while one would not want to read too much into it, it does raise some interesting questions."

[British Archaeology magazine, issue 76, May 2004]

Stead mentions two North Riding burials he considered, by comparison, similar. Newbridge too has this same ritual. It begs so many questions. Was the Arras culture unique? Or, did the Brigantes too practise burials with vehicles? It certainly seems some of them did in my humble opinion, especially those that bordered on the lands of the Arras (Parisi). Which was the dominant ritual, because if it was the Brigantian, then it seems plain that there are yet to be discovered many more upright and intact chariot burials from the north of England into southern Scotland. That the Brigantes tradition stretched from the Mersey to the Tyne and beyond is I think not disputed. Their northern borders with the Carvettii, Selgovae, and Votadini peoples, in what is now lowland Scotland, were likely to have been somewhat fluid over the generations. The Roman Imperial imperative to 'isolate' the tribes north of the wall built during the consulship of Hadrian, for whatever the reason, divided intentionally the northern Brigantes and their more northern neighbours from their southern relatives and neighbours. Whether this was strategic, or economic is arguable, it was maybe a combination of factors, the Romans ever were pragmatists. The direct connection between this burial and Scotland did not become apparent until much later!

Dating evidence of the Ferrybridge chariot was provided by: "The decorative copper alloy nave neck sheathing, attached to the inner nave hoop of the western wheel, is unlike anything seen before in this country (see photos opposite) [view the mentioned article in full for these]. The closest parallel we have so far identified is the Erkenbrechtsweiler type from the Hallstatt period, the continental Early Iron Age (c 630-450 BC). If this indicates an early date for the Ferrybridge chariot, then it could be one of the first cases of a two-wheeled vehicle burial in Europe.
"The ceremonial use of four-wheeled vehicles (such as that buried with the 'princess' of Vix, in Burgundy, France, but never yet found in Britain) was a practice of the Hallstatt period; two-wheeled vehicles were not used in burial rites until the more recent La Tène era (up to the Roman conquest). Ferrybridge might therefore give us new information about the transition between these two times, and the change from burials in four-wheeled wagons to those in two-wheeled chariots. Yet, even if the chariot itself dates to a later period, the use of an earlier style of fitting within the grave still gives us new insights as to the use and reuse of items that could only have been seen as antique at the time.
"The Newbridge chariot is dated by radiocarbon to 520-370 BC. We think the Ferrybridge example will prove to be of similar date, but of course we await radiocarbon results with great interest. We hope to conduct stable isotope analysis of the man's teeth, with a view to determining his area of birth."
The chariot was excavated by Oxford Archaeology for project archaeologists RPS and the Highways Agency. RMG, a subsidiary of RMS, funded the rest of the scheme.

On Wednesday 9th March 2005, via all media outlets, it was announced that the Ferrybridge charioteer had revealed not one but two of his secrets. The first was that by scientific analysis of the dental enamel of his teeth, it was clear he was not a local Yorkshireman. He did however spend his youth in either the Highlands of Scotland or in Scandinavia. In Scotland, especially the Highlands, the Iron Age tradition, historically, lasted well beyond that of the comparable English Iron Age, by many centuries. This is because in England, the Iron Age is deemed to have ceased to exist immediately with the Claudian arrival of 43 AD. History does not like fluid eras, they have to be defined and delineated by dates, therefore in England, the Iron Age ceased in the year 43, and the Roman, or Romano-British period commenced. The Romans however, did not invade northern Scotland; they may have sent various punitive military expeditions during the 1st century AD, but little else. Regardless of historical prerogatives, in real life, it took the Romans several decades to quell the north of England, south of the line of their great wall. The English Iron Age did not die out in 43 AD, but continued in its own pragmatic way as Roman influences gradually but insidiously pervaded all aspects of existence. What makes this burial so intriguing is that some 500 years after his death [c400BC], his grave was still known, and still venerated! Angela Boyle, Oxford Archaeology, said, speaking to the BBC on the 9th March 2005, said "This was not the man in the street, he was clearly important. Whether this was the leader of a tribe or in fact a number of tribes, we do not know. He was buried there, with that chariot because he was clearly an individual that commanded a lot of respect." Buried with the grave, but not in it, were the fragmentary remains of butchered animal bones, over 10,000 of them, from an estimated 300 head of cattle! This is a HUGE number of beasts. Their bones were after consumption, cast into the barrow ditch, where they remained until archaeologists were able to decipher their message. The message they sent forward through 2,000 years was that they were all left there 500 years after the charioteer was buried. The BBC article states "The team from Oxford Archaeology believe the cattle bones were the remains of a feast for native Britons who gathered to commemorate the man. The feast, which thousands of people would have attended, came at a time when the Romans were exerting their authority in the country. 'This could be seen as a reassertion of national [or cultural] identity, or a plea to ancestors to help them out in difficult times.' Mrs Boyle added."

This last is quite amazing, Mrs; Boyle could have it right; it has the feeling of rightness about it. Dedicated [and career-minded] academics do not wish to be seen making the suggestion I am about to, nor possibly does anyone, wise enough to resist this temptation! I ask the reader to consider, but not to take it as anything other than a flight of fancy, a wild conjecture only, that with this charioteer, the Iron Age people of Briton had what might only be called a King Arthur figure. A "Once and future king" figure, a national saviour in times of great peril, another Drake's Drum! Whoever this man had been in life, he had become a legend, even in his own lifetime, which to those people at his graveside was a lifetime 500 years in the past. For his burial mound to be remembered by so many, and who must have come from not only Yorkshire, but perhaps from all across Britain, he must have been venerated even then as a national hero when there was in fact, no nation, no concept of nationality perhaps. It defines very clearly that not all Iron Age tribes in Briton welcomed the duplicitous and perfidious ways of the rapidly approaching Roman Empire that was already demanding taxes and slaves from the subjugated and the sycophantic native peoples of southern Britain. BUT, on a more down to earth note, it has been pointed out to me by Mr. Rodney Mackey that none of this should be taken for granted just yet. It might be the case that the feast was held at the site purely by chance, a simple coincidence. While Mr. Mackey did not offer this idea to me as a theory, he did mention it in passing that there could well be alternative interpretations to what ever was occurring at Ferrybridge.

A rational summary to the whole Chariot-burial phenomenon is offered by Oxford Archaeology who have said "Chariot burials remain one of the rarest and most intriguing forms of burial rites known in Britain. Dating from roughly 500-100 BC, they are thought to represent the final rites of elite individuals of the middle Iron Age. Typically, archaeologists find a single burial placed in a large grave with a two-wheeled vehicle. These vehicles are usually referred to as chariots, although what they were originally used for is still not certainly known. The burials are often accompanied by other high-status objects, including mirrors and swords.
"Processed animal bones are often found at these burial sites, and many archaeologists believe that these are the remains from feasts associated with the funeral rites. Like most human remains uncovered from the British Iron Age, the bodies are generally found in a crouched (or curled-up) position, lying on one side, though the orientation of the skeleton may vary based upon the exact period to which the remains date. This adult male skeleton is lying on his back with his legs flexed, orientated north-south with his head to the north.
"Almost all the chariot burials known in Britain have been found in Yorkshire, generally in the areas north of the Humber Estuary. They usually occur in cemetery groups associated with a characteristic type of burial monument known as a square barrow. These survive today as square ditched enclosures, although they would originally have been covered by an earth mound. The burial is usually found in a grave cut at the centre of the square, and many contain high-status objects such as mirrors and swords and in some cases chariots.
"Square barrows, together with the chariot burials, have helped archaeologists to identify a unique cultural grouping centred on the Yorkshire Wolds known to modern archaeologists as the Arras culture. This cultural tradition appears to have had quite distinct burial practices when compared to the rest of Britain, but there is little other archaeological evidence that differentiates these people from their Iron Age neighbours. This has led to much speculation about whether these people were indigenous to the region, or whether they were a distinct group of migrants or invaders. Although chariot and square barrow burials are rare in Britain, they were relatively frequent during the Iron Age on the Continent. We will carry out isotope analysis on the teeth of the skeleton to find out more about his origins.
"The closest culturally similar burial rites are found in the Champagne-Ardennes region of France, and the Mosel region of Germany. Like Yorkshire, the Iron Age inhabitants of these regions had burial rites that included the interment of two-wheeled vehicles and the use of square barrows. Many, if not most, of these are found intact, that is with the chariot apparently buried upright and in one piece rather than disassembled and laid flat. Although many of the continental burials are earlier than those found in Yorkshire, the burial rites of these regions are so similar that there seems to be little question that some form of communication existed between them. The nature of this contact is still debated, but current theories suggest either that a small number of elite individuals moved from the continent to the Yorkshire region, or that cultural exchange and contact between the two regions led to the assimilation of the continental into the Yorkshire burial rites.
"In general it can readily be said that each chariot burial is unique, although they do share certain characteristics. The chariot itself was normally taken apart, with the wheels left either leaning against the side of the grave, or laid flat on top of the structure of the chariot itself. This is clearly not the case with this latest find, nor with the Newbridge chariot burial, found near Edinburgh. Yet, while rarer in Britain, the practice of burying complete chariots was more common on the Continent, where vehicle burials are more frequently recovered.
"Perhaps the most significant thing about chariot burials, especially intact examples in which the chariot is buried complete, is that they indicate some form of contact and exchange between the Continent and Britain during the middle Iron Age. Little is known about cultural exchange during this period, and academic specialists are divided about the degree to which one can classify Iron Age Europe as a single culture. Insights gained from this latest discovery will make a significant addition to our understanding of the burial rites of the period, and help us to understand a wide range of other elements of cultural exchange, including aspects of social reproduction and cross-Channel contact and communication."

[http://www.oxfordarch.co.uk/pages/chariot_burial.htm]

In Conclusion
Rod Mackey has provided for this article, his amended "Summary of a paper given in tribute to the work of the late Tony Pacitto at Helmsley Arts Centre on 26th Sep 2004. - Rod Mackey, Dec.2004" to whom go my sincere thanks for his knowledge, experience and generosity and permission to include here, in full his words.

"The invention of the chariot is closely linked with the earlier domestication of the wild horse in the Eurasian steppe and the earliest examples of chariot graves occur around 1600BC at Sintashta River (southern Russia) and Lake Sevan (Armenian Caucasus). Chariot construction depended on the use of metal tools and an entirely new bent-wood technology to make lightweight frames and spoked wheels. In contrast to the much older four-wheeled, ox-drawn wagon, chariots were built for speed and manoeuvrability. They offered huge advantages in transport and warfare and were adopted by warrior nobilities as symbols of prestige as far apart as Egypt, India, China and Britain. Various cultural groups continued to bury them with the dead as prestigious grave goods.
"All but one of the British chariot graves have been discovered in eastern Yorkshire (Fig.1). Twelve were found in the 19th century and records vary from second-hand accounts to more detailed descriptions, but only one sketch plan survives (Mortimer 1905, p359). A further six chariots were excavated under modern conditions between 1971 and 1986 by Brewster, Dent and Stead and three more by commercial teams since 2001 on development sites.
"It seems likely that chariot burials came to Britain from north-eastern France in the later first millennium BC, together with square barrows. However in the East Yorkshire cemeteries, the dead were normally interred in crouched or flexed positions, whereas in France they were invariably extended. If, as has been suggested, this was a native British tradition we need to explain how the practice had survived through the intervening Late Bronze Age, when bodies were cremated. Were corpses laid in this position on funeral pyres? Few square barrows have been examined elsewhere in Britain, but two recent discoveries at Brisley Farm in Kent contained extended inhumations (Stevenson, 2004).
"At least three of the Yorkshire burials were of females. Martial equipment is rare even in male chariot graves (swords at Wetwang Slack B1 & B3 and a mail coat at Kirkburn), so although chariots could be used in warfare, their main function was probably to show off the high status of their owners. They were technologically advanced and expensively decorated vehicles. With a pair of well-trained horses, they were capable of unprecedented speed and manoeuvrability. In short, they were the Iron Age equivalent of a modern Ferrari. Irish sources tell us that the early medieval equivalent vehicle, the 'carpat' was used in contests at communal feasts, in both racing and performing spectacular stunts, like jumping logs or ditches at full speed (Karl, 2002). They were also used as funeral biers to carry their owners to the grave, although in Ireland, as far as we know, they were never buried with the corpse.
"At least six of the British chariots show evidence of wear or repair (e.g. replaced wheels at Danes Graves, Newbridge & Ferrybridge and red glass replacement for coral in a terret at Wetwang village). These vehicles may even have passed through several generations as heirlooms, before being buried.
"Most French and Belgian chariots were buried intact with their wheels let into slots in the grave floor, (like the earliest Russian examples), but some later ones were either dismantled or cremated. In Britain, all of the Yorkshire Wolds chariots were dismantled, whilst those on the periphery (Pexton Moor, Cawthorn, Hunmanby? Ferrybridge), together with Newbridge (Edinburgh), appear to have been buried intact (Fig.2).
" In the Yorkshire Wold graves, the skeleton is most frequently found over the wheels (e.g. Garton Slack, Wetwang Slack B1, B2 & B3 and Kirkburn). This seems an uncomfortable bed for a respectful burial and there is no evidence for the kind of skeletal disarticulation that might have occurred had the corpse decayed directly over the spokes. Some kind of separation seems likely, possibly the floor of the 'box' noted in the fill above. These 'boxes' are defined by differences in the grave fill and can only have been created by structures with solid sides (wickerwork, leather or wood). They may either be cart bodies or coffins, but the one at Wetwang Slack B2 lies askew to the pole and is undoubtedly detached. It has been suggested that they were inverted over the corpse, but there is no good evidence to support this.
"The burials at Garton Station and Wetwang village challenge the coffin hypothesis. At both sites, the 'box' appeared above where the 'T' frame of the vehicle should be, whilst the skeleton lay beneath it on the grave floor. At Wetwang village, the 'box' was defined by an (imported) red clayey fill, which appeared as an oblong c1.40m x 0.90m. A similar shape was noted on the grave floor around and beneath the skeleton, where the natural chalk gravel had lost its smaller particles through chemical erosion. This corpse was probably laid on some kind of platform or mat, which couldn't be the floor of the 'box' above, unless the vehicle was built without a 'T' frame!
"It is always assumed that the Yorkshire chariots had 'T' frames, because traces of the axle and pole almost invariably lie at right angles to each other. However, it is important to note, that axle traces usually survive at one end of the grave and pole traces at the other, but never beneath the area of the 'box' where the two join. Of course, the idea that these vehicles could be built without rigid 'T' frames is a radical one, but nevertheless one worth considering.
"The recent exciting find at Ferrybridge has thrown new light on these problems. This chariot was the best preserved so far, with the skeleton lying inside a clearly defined, long narrow 'box' with, what looks to be, a rounded front end. Recent analysis of this outline stain has revealed that it was made of leather. As woven leather platforms are known from earlier Russian and Egyptian chariots, it seems more likely that the Ferrybridge corpse was laid in the chariot body and not in a coffin.
"The position of the platform relative to the axle and pole is intriguing. It lies immediately in front of the axle, but at a distinctly lower level with traces of the pole curving beneath it. It has been suggested that its low position is due to subsidence, but this seems unlikely as the grave fill was full of rocks and the skeleton showed none of the disarticulation that subsidence in these conditions would have caused. Furthermore, the pole is not likely to have rotted from the axle before the floor of the 'box' collapsed around it. If this chariot has moved little since burial, it is difficult to see how the pole and axle could have been joined by a rigid 'T' joint. Flexible attachments (leather or rope) seem a possibility. They would allow the wheels greater movement and reduce shock to the platform.
"The Ferrybridge layout suggests that the vehicle platform was forward of the axle. This position accords with the evidence from most of the recently excavated British, Belgian and French chariot graves. For example at Newbridge (Edinburgh) and Quilly (Marne) there was little room behind the axle for any superstructure. Stead suggests that this forward position would impart too much strain on the horses' backs (Stead. 1991, p32), but these vehicles could be very light and the weight transmitted by two passengers might be little more than that of two riders. Examples of carts with axles at the back are known from elsewhere in Europe. The distance between the front of the Ferrybridge 'box' and the yoke (c1.10m) is rather short for the 'box' to be in the 'ride' position. A 13-hand pony measures about 1.0m from withers to tail, so a pair of 12-hand ponies might just give enough clearance with this pole length, if the platform was 'slung' between the top of the axle and the middle of the pole. This kind of suspension has been suggested in a reconstruction of the early medieval Irish 'carpat' ('carpentum' in Antiquity), based on literary sources (Karl, 2002).
"Further experimental reconstructions are called for, once the detailed information from Ferrybridge becomes available.

25 th May, 2006

An announcement by the BBC relates of the Ferrybridge chariot:

“Ancient chariot goes on display

A 2,500-year-old chariot found during the construction of a motorway near Pontefract will go on display at the town's museum on Friday.

It will be displayed in the 'Wheels of Time' exhibition at Pontefract Museum until 22 July.

The display will feature a human skeleton and the remains of 250 cattle also discovered at a site at Darrington, near Pontefract.

The relic will eventually be moved to its final resting place at a new history centre in Castleford.

During their time on display, the artefacts will be kept under special conditions which will control temperature and humidity. ”

Fig. 1 - Distribution of Chariot Burials in Eastern Yorkshire

Fig.2 - Distribution of Dismantled and Intact Chariot Burials in Eastern Yorkshire "

Bibliography for this item from Rod Mackey:
"Bibliography:

Boyle, A, 2004 The Ferrybridge chariot burial, Current Archaeology No. 191, 481-85
_______, 2004 Riding into History, British Archaeology Issue 76, 22-7
Brewster, T C M, 1971 The Garton Slack chariot burial, East Yorkshire, Antiquity, 45, 289-92
Cahen-Delhay, A, 1991 Les Sépultures de La Tène, Archéologie en Ardenne, 65-80
_____________, 1992 Deux tombelles de la Tène I à Juseret-Berchaux (Lux.), Archéo-Situla, 13-16, 23-42
_____________, 1997 Nécropole de La Tène à Neufchàteau-Le-Sart, Monographie d'Archéologie Nationale 10
_____________, 1998 Les rites funéraires laténiens en Ardenne belge, Études et Documents Fouilles 4, 15-30
Carter, C & Hunter, F, 2001 The Newbridge chariot, Current Archaeology No. 178, 413-15
Dent, J S, 1985a Three cart burials from Wetwang, Yorkshire, Antiquity, 59, 85-92
_______, 1985b La Nécropole de Wetwang Slack, Histoire et Archéologie: les dossiers, 98, 42-51
Flouest, J L & Stead, I M, 1985 Une Tombe à Char sans Char, Histoire et Archéologie: les dossiers, 98, 26-7
Hill, J D, 2002 Wetwang chariot burial, Current Archaeology No. 178, 410-12, & No. 194, 59
Hurt, V, 1991 La nécropole celtique de Witry, Archéologie en Ardenne, 81-6
Karl, R, 2002 Irish Medieval Chariots, Insight Magazine - http://homepage.tinet.ie/~archaeology/chariot.htm
Lambot, B & Verger, S, 1995 Une tombe à char de la Tène ancienne à Semide (Ardennes), Société Archéologique Champenoise, memoire no. 10, supplement au bulletin No. 1
Mortimer, J R, 1905 Forty Years Researches in British and Saxon Burial Mounds of East Yorkshire, 358-364
Piggott, S, 1974 Chariots in the Caucasus and in China, Antiquity 189, 16-27
________, 1979 The First Wagons and Carts: twenty-five years later, Institute of Archaeology Bulletin No.16
________, 1992 Wagon, Chariot and Carriage
Sheppard, T, 1907 Note on a British Chariot Burial at Hunmanby, in East Yorkshire, Yorkshire Archaeological & Topographical Journal, Vol. 19, 482-88
Spruytte, J, 1977 Etudes expérimentales sur l'attelage
Stead, I M, 1965 The La Tène Cultures of Eastern Yorkshire, The Yorkshire Philosophical Society
________, 1991 Iron Age cemeteries in East Yorkshire, English Heritage Archaeological Report No. 22
Stevenson, J, 2004 Brisley Farm, The last Iron Age warriors of Kent? Current Archaeology No. 191, 490-96
Stillingfleet, E W, 1846 Account of the opening of some barrows on the Wolds of Yorkshire, Proceedings of Archaeological Institute, York Vol. 26-32"

AND FINALLY
When this project was first proposed to me, I was sceptical; sceptical that it would prove to be of interest, sceptical that I would be able to produce an article worthy of what appears at first site as of interest to none, other than archaeologists and scholars; and sceptical that I would be able to find sufficient material to provide an adequate narrative. Thanks to so many generous, helpful both in time and support, and knowledgeable people [see below list for their names], it has proved to be a fascinating and rewarding journey through time and archaeological technique. It has perhaps posed more questions than it has answered, but such is the nature of any investigation of this type. I hope that if any reader has managed to read it through from start to finish, then they might take away some of the enthusiasm with which this project was undertaken. If on the other hand it is used for points of reference to individual excavations, this too makes all the effort worthwhile. Please email via the link provided, any comments, be they good or otherwise, if this project has moved you in any way, if it has made you think about our ancestors, or the Iron Age in general. The latter is of course a massive subject, about which has been and which continues to inspire, millions of words to be written about it. I have tried very hard to stick with my brief, which was originally, to answer the question - 'What do you know about Yorkshire's chariot burials?' The answer then was - not a lot! I hope I have now however, provided an article, which answers that question - to all levels of satisfaction up to current knowledge.

Iit has to be emphasised that nothing in archaeology is finite; archaeology is the science of interpreting excavated evidence. At best, this entire article provides only an insight into current thinking rather than a concrete history of what has been to-date discovered, but it is I hope the most up-to-date interpretation of these enigmatic graves and their contents. Whether archaeology will ever be able to provide all the answers is I am afraid to say, doubtful, but that misses the point I feel. Knowledge and understanding comes from the search and theoretical interpretation of such discoveries together with academic debate [that
hopefully this article will help to engender], which infuse this whole topic with such vigour and stimulation.

Richard Hayton © 2005

Bibliography, Contributors, and Consulted Sources:

I must first of all, acknowledge the assistance, support, advice courtesy and above all, their generosity of [in no particular order]:

Dr. Ian Stead, currently retired, but formerly Deputy Keeper of the Department of Prehistoric and Romano-British Antiquities at the British Museum.

Dr. John Dent. Principal Officer (Archaeology and Countryside), Planning and Economic Development, Scottish Borders Council.

Dr. J. D. Hill, Curator, British and European Iron Age Collections, Department of Prehistory and Europe, The British Museum

Dr. Simon Dove, Senior Conservator, Department of Conservation and Science, The British Museum

Rod Mackey, archaeologist present at all the chariot digs in Yorkshire, and with a lifetime's experience, for his contribution, and timely and sage advice

Peter Shorer, Fellow, International Institute for Conservation, Senior Conservator retired, British Museum 1939 to 1983, a total of 44 years, for his aerial photographs of Garton Slack, 1971.

Bryan Sitch, Keeper of Archaeology, Hull & East Riding Museum.

Martin Foreman, Assistant Keeper of Archaeology, Hull & East Riding Museum, for his unique way of guidance, and for letting me see some very special objects first hand.

Dave Evens, former County Archaeologist for Hull and the East Riding, currently Archaeology Manager at Humber Archaeology Partnership.

Mr. Golly Thorn, site manager for Hogg the Builder of York, at Wetwang 2001.

John Colby, University of Central England, for his knowledge of geology

The staff at University Archives, University of Hull, Brynmor Jones Library,
Cottingham Road, HULL HU6 7RX

The staff at the East Riding of Yorkshire Archive Service, County Hall, Beverley, East Riding of Yorkshire, HU17 9BA.

Photographic and Imaging Department, The British Museum, Danielle Duff in particular

Paul Backhouse, Manager Graphics and Digital Media, Oxford Archaeology

Corinne Mills, for originally asking the question, providing photographs, and proofreading.

Pam White, for providing hard copy source material

Andre Brannan, for his assistance in researching Section 1

AND finally but by no means least, my wife Judith, for photocopying, additional spell checking, and making me rest when I needed to

Written Texts:
Account of the opening of some barrows on the Wolds of Yorkshire; the Rev. Edward William Stillingfleet, 1847; Beverley Reference and Local Studies Library, Beverley, East Yorkshire; Ref. YE/571.92/2126,233

A Summary of What is Known of the so-called 'Danes' Graves' Near Driffield; a paper read by J. R. Mortimer, 1897, for The Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society.

Forty Years' Research in British and Saxon Burial Mounds of East Yorkshire; J. R. Mortimer, A. Brown and Sons Ltd, London and Hull, 1905.

Note on a British Chariot-Burial at Hunmanby, in East Yorkshire; T. Sheppard, Hull Museums Publications no.'s 37 - 48, no. 45, 1907.

Prehistoric Europe an Illustrated History; edited by Barry Cunliffe, Oxford University Press, paperback edition, 1997.

Prehistoric Humberside; Archaeology Unit, Property Services Dept. Humberside County Council.

New Light on the Parisi, Recent discoveries in the Iron Age and Roman East Yorkshire; edited by Peter Halkon, East Riding Archaeological Society and the University of Hull, 1989.

Further Light on the Parisi; edited by Peter Halkon, East Riding Archaeological Research Trust, East Riding Archaeological Society, Dept. of History, University of Hull.

The Arras Culture; Ian Stead, Yorkshire Philosophical Society, 1971

Cart-burials in Britain; Ian Stead, Keltski Voz, 1984.

The Horses from the King's Barrow, Arras; A. J. Legge, appendix, Keltski Voz, 1984

Garton Slack; T. C. M. Brewster, (1976) in Current Archaeology 51 (July 1975)

The Garton Slack chariot; East Riding Archaeological Research Committee, 1981, Reprinted from Horse and Driving, Idle, Bradford, West Yorkshire.

Three cart burials from Wetwang; Yorkshire; John Dent, Antiquity, LIX, 1985

Garton Station; Current Archaeology, 103, 1987, source Ian Stead, The British Museum.

Iron Age Cemeteries in East Yorkshire; by Ian Stead, English Heritage in association with British Museum Press, 1991.

"Retrieval of Objects from Archaeological Sites, Chapter Four, Lifting the Kirkburn Tunic" by Simon Dove and Ruth Goldstraw, edited by Robert Payton, published by Archetype Publications 1992, pp. 51-59.

"Past", The Newsletter of the Prehistoric Society, University College, London, Number 47, July, 2004, by Rebecca Stacey, Department of Conservation, Documentation and Science, British Museum.

"Changes in the later iron age of East Yorkshire", in Duval, A et al. (Eds.) 1990, Les Gaulois d'Armorique: Revue Archeologique de l'Ouest, supplement no.3 (1990), 223-231

ERAS News, East Riding Archaeological Society, No. 51, July 2002.

Current Archaeology magazine, Number 178, Vol. XV No 10, March 2002

British Archaeology magazine, issue 76, May 2004

Britannia, a History of Roman Britain; Sheppard Frere, first published 1967, used edition 1974, Book Club Associates and Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.

The Arras Culture; Robert Van de Noort, An Historical Atlas of East Yorkshire, The University of Hull Press, 1996, ISBN 0 85958 652 9

Celtic Art and Design; Iain Zaczek, Studio Editions, 1995, ISBN 1 85891 191 5.

The Archaeology of Yorkshire; F and H.W. Elgee, first by Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1933, this edition S.R. Publishers, 1971, ISBN 0 85409 664 7

The Victoria History of the Counties of England - A history of Yorkshire Volume 1; Republished for the University of London Institute of Historical Research, reprinted from the original edition of 1907, by Dawsons of Pall Mall, Folkstone & London, 1974.

"Rural Settlement and Industry: Studies in the Iron Age and Roman Archaeology of Lowland East Yorkshire" edited by Peter Halkon and Martin Millett, Yorkshire Archaeological Report No. 4, 1999.

Rome and Her Empire, Barry Cunliffe, McGraw-Hill Book Company, (UK) Limited, 1978.

Greece and Rome at War, Peter Connolly, MacDonald Phoebus Ltd., 1981.

Ordnance Survey, Landranger series

Trees in Britain, Europe and North America; by Roger Philips, first published by Pan Books Ltd, London, 1978.

British Regional Geology Eastern England, Second Edition, Sir Peter Kent, DSc, PhD, FRS, HMSO, London, 1980.

The Celts, Nora Chadwick, Penguin Books, 1986 edition.

Consulted Online Sources:

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Esseda.html

http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~lascretn/IAAgenda.htm#A

http://www.ironmasters.hull.ac.uk/index.cfm

http://www.searchspaniel.com/

http://www.romanmap.com/htm/ptolemy/pt3_10.htm

http://www.polybiblio.com/quaritch/%7BAP50%7D.html

http://www.hullcc.gov.uk/libraries/images_of_hull/images_streetlife.php

Understanding the British Iron Age - An Agenda for Action:
http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~lascretn/Agenda.htm found via Google search engine, but cannot be directly linked. Can however be found by following link at http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/

http://www.pastperfect.org.uk/archaeology/magneto.html

http://www.northernearth.co.uk/perm/gypsey.htm

http://www.northeast-geolsoc.50megs.com/pages/page15cretaceous.htm

http://www.fortunecity.com/greenfield/ecolodge/60/chalkls.htm

http://www.britarch.ac.uk/awards/baa98.html

http://www.oxfordarch.co.uk/pages/chariot_burial.htm

http://www.hullcc.gov.uk/archaeology/

An intriguing comparison of chariot history; chariot styles; designs, from Egypt to Ireland including the Iron Age; and attempted reconstructions in this, from the University of Wales:
http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol5/5_1/karl_5_1.pdf

http://db.bbc.co.uk/history/lj/archaeologylj/wetwang_02.shtml

http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4166971,00.html

http://www.ucl.ac.uk/prehistoric/index.html

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/lj/archaeologylj/chariot_01.shtml

If I have omitted to include any person, publication, or organisation from this list, to them go my sincere apologies, and also my sincere thanks.

Richard Hayton © 2005